Section 1: The French Society during the Late 18th Century
Unit 1 :- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
The French Society was divided into three estates. The first two enjoyed all privileges.
- Some within the Third Estate were rich and some were poor.
- The burden of financing activities of the state through taxes was borne by the Third Estate alone.
The Struggle for Survival: The population of France grew and so did the demand for grain. The gap between the rich and poor widened. This led to subsistence crises.
Subsistence Crisis: An extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered.
The Growing Middle Class: The 18th century witnessed the emergence of the middle class which was educated and believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth. These ideas were put forward by philosophers such as Locke the English philosopher and Rousseau, the French philosopher. The American constitution and its guarantee of individual rights were an important example of the political theories of France. These ideas were discussed intensively in salons and coffee houses and spread among people through books and newspapers. These were even read aloud.
THE OUTBREAK OF THE REVOLUTION
The French Revolution went through various stages. When Louis XVI became king of France in 1774, he inherited an empty treasury. There was growing discontent within the society of the Old Regime.
1789
Louis XVI called the Estate General to pass the proposals for new taxes. The Third Estate forms National Assembly, the Bastille is stormed, and peasant revolts in the countryside.
1791
The national assembly completed the draft of the constitution. It limited the powers of the king and guaranteed basic rights to all human beings. France became a constitutional monarchy.
1792-93
France abolished the monarchy and became a republic. The national assembly was replaced by convention. King and queen were executed.
1793 - 94
It is referred to as a reign of terror. Robespierre followed a policy of severe control. He executed all the so-called 'enemies' of the republic.
1795
1799
The Revolution ends with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
TimeLine: The French Revolution
The 1770s- 1780s — Economic decline: French Government in deep debt.
1788- 1789 — Bad harvest, high prices, food riots
1789, May 5 — Estates-General convened, and demands reforms.
1789, July 14 — National Assembly formed. Bastille stormed on July 14. French Revolution starts.
1789, Aug. 4 — The night of August 4 ends the rights of the aristocracy.
1789, Aug. 26 — Declaration of the Rights of Man
1790 — Civil Constitution of the Clergy nationalizes the Church.
1792 — Constitution of 1791 converts absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy with limited powers.
1792 — Austria and Prussia attack revolutionary France
1793 — Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette are executed.
1792-1794 — The Reign of Terror starts. Austria, Britain, the Netherlands, Prussia, and Spain are at war with France.
— Robespierre’s Committee of Public Safety repels back foreign invaders.
Executes many “enemies of the people” in France itself.
1794 — Robespierre is executed. France is governed by a Directory, a committee of five men.
1799 — Napoleon Bonaparte becomes the leader.
WOMEN’S REVOLUTION
From the very beginning, women were active participants in the events which brought about so many changes in French society. Most women of the third estate had to work for a living. Their wages were lower than those of men.
To discuss and voice their interests, women started their political clubs and newspapers. One of their main demands was that women must enjoy the same political rights as men. Some laws were introduced to improve the position of women. Their struggle continues in several parts of the world.
It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.
THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY
There was a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. In the 18th century, there was little criticism of slavery in France. No laws were passed against it. It was in 1794 that the convention freed all slaves. But 10 years later slavery was reintroduced by Napoleon. It was finally in 1848 that slavery was abolished in the French colonies.
THE REVOLUTION AND EVERYDAY LIFE
The years following 1789 in France saw many changes in the lives of men, women, and children. The revolutionary governments took it upon themselves to pass laws that would translate the ideals of liberty and equality into everyday practice. One important law that came into effect was the abolition of censorship.
The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution. These spread from France to the rest of Europe during the 19th century.
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
In 1804, Napoleon crowned himself emperor of France. He set out to conquer neighboring European countries, dispossessing dynasties and creating kingdoms where he placed members of his family. He saw his role as a modernizer of Europe. He introduced many reforms which had a long-lasting effect on Europe. He was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815.
Exercise
Question-answer
1. Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary protest in France.
Answer:- The circumstances that causes the outbreak of revolutionary protest in France were: -
- Social Inequality:
French society in the eighteenth century was divided into three estates namely The Clergy, The nobility, and third estates which comprises peasants, officials, and small businesses. It was only third estates who only paid taxes. Clergy and nobility were exempt from taxes.
- Subsistence Crisis:
The population of France also increased from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789. Foodgrains were now in great demand. The price of bread shot up. Wages did not keep pace with rising prices. This led to a subsistence crisis.
- Economic Problems:
Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France. To meet its regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, the court, and running government offices or universities, the state was forced to increase taxes.
-Strong Middle Class:
The middle class emerged as educated and wealthy during the eighteenth century. They believed that no group in society should be given privileges by birth. Ideas of equality and freedom were put forward by philosophers. The ideas of these philosophers were discussed intensively in salons and coffee houses and spread among people.
-Immediate Causes:
On 5 may, 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of Estates General to pass proposals for new taxes. Third estates protested against this proposal but as each estate have one vote the king rejected this appeal. They walked out of the assembly.
2. Which groups of French society benefited from the revolution? Which groups were forced to relinquish power? Which sections of society would have been disappointed with the outcome of the revolution?
Answer:- The richer members of the third estate (the middle class) benefited the most from the French Revolution.
The clergy and the nobility were forced to relinquish power.
The poorer sections of society and women would have been disappointed with the outcome of the revolution as the promise of equality was not fulfilled in full measure at the end of the revolution.
3. Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the peoples of the world during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Answer:-
A. The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution.
B. These spread from France to the rest of Europe during the nineteenth century, when feudal Systems were abolished.
C. It inspired the Germans, Italians, and Austrians to overthrow their oppressive regimes. The French Revolution inspired the struggling nations of Asia and Africa who were groaning under the oppression of European colonialism.
D. Tipu Sultan and Rajaram Mohan Roy are two examples of individuals who responded to ideas coming from the French revolution.
4. Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origins could be traced to the French Revolution.
Answer:-
We can trace the origin of the following democratic rights
we enjoy today the French revolution:
Right to Equality
Right to Freedom
Freedom of Speech and expression
Right to form associations
Right to justice and security
5. Would you agree with the view that the message of universal rights was beset with contradictions? Explain.
Answer:-
and Citizen" was replete with dubious meanings. For example, "the law has the right to forbid only actions injurious to society" had nothing to say about criminal offenses against other individuals.
The declaration stated that "law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation."All citizens are equal before it", but when France became a constitutional monarchy, almost 3 million citizens including men under the age of 25 and women were not allowed to vote at all.
Hence, by these universal rights poor were suppressed. The constitution is only available for the rich. Women were neglected in decision-making.
6. How would you explain the rise of Napoleon?
Answer:-
A. After France became a republic in 1792, the then ruler, Robespierre (Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre was a French lawyer and statesman who became one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution.) gave more privileges to the wealthier section of society. Further, he was a sort of autocrat himself. This led to the reign of terror for the following many years.
B. After Robespierre's rule came to an end a directory was formed to avoid the concentration of power in one individual. Members of the directory often fought among themselves leading to chaos and political instability. This created a political vacuum in France.
FRANCE MAP WORK
Question 1
Features are marked by numbers in the given outline map of France.
Identify these features with the help of the following information and write
their correct names on the lines marked in the map.
1 The region not affected by the Great Fear
or
Regions of France not affected by the Great Fear
2 The place where Napoleon Bonaparte was finally
defeated in 1815
3 Region of Southern France was not affected by
the Great Fear
Question 2.
Locate and label the following items on the given
map with appropriate symbols.
1 Epicenter of main panic movement in Western
France
2 Region of Western France that was not affected
by the Great Fear
3 A Port of France related to Slave Trade
4 The port of France enriched due to Slave Trade
Question 3.
On the given outline map of France, locate the following cities
A Bordeaux
B. Normandy
C. Nantes
Question 4
=========================================================================
Unit 2 :- Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
THE AGE OF SOCIAL CHANGE
The French Revolution opened up the possibility of creating a dramatic change in the way in which society was structured. Not everyone in Europe, however, wanted a complete transformation. Some were ‘conservatives’, while others were ‘liberals’ or ‘radicals’.
Liberals: Wanted a nation which tolerated all religions. They were against the uncontrolled power of the dynastic rulers.They wanted rights for individuals.They argued for an elected parliamentary government, subject to laws interpreted by a well trained judiciary that was independent of rulers and officials. They were not democrats because they did not believe in universal adult franchise.
Radicals: Wanted a nation in which government was based on the majority of a country’s population. They disliked concentration of property in hands of a few, not the existence of private property.
Conservatives: They resisted change. After the revolution they started accepting change provided it was slow and had links and respected the past.
Industries and Social Change : This was the time of economic and social change. It was also the beginning of the industrial revolution. Men, women and children were pushed into factories for low wages, Liberals and radicals who were factory owners felt that efforts must be encouraged so that benefits of industrialization should be passed on to workers.
Socialism in Europe: Socialists were against private property and saw it as root of social evils.They had different visions of the future. Some believed in cooperatives, some demanded that governments must encourage cooperatives.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels added that industrial society was capitalist. Marx believed that a socialist society would free the workers from capitalism. This would be a communist society.
Support for Socialism : Socialists formed an organization called 'Second International' to spread socialist ideas. Workers in Germany and England began forming associations to fight for better living conditions. They set up funds for members in distress, reduction of working hours and right to vote.
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled the Russian empire.
Economy and Society: Most of the Russian population( about 85 %) were agriculturalist. Industries were being set up which was mostly private property of industrialists. Workers were divided into groups but they did unite to strike work when they were dissatisfied. Peasants had no respect for nobility, very unlike the French peasant. Russian peasants were the only peasant community which pooled their land and their commune divided it.
Socialism in Russia: All political parties were illegal in Russia before 1914.
The Russian Socialist Democratic Labour Party was formed in 1898. It struggled to give peasants their rights over land that belonged to nobles. As land was divided among peasants periodically which makes them natural socialist and it was felt that peasants and not workers would be the main source of the revolution. But Lenin did not agree with this as he felt that peasants were not one social group. The party was divided into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.
The 1905 Revolution : Russia was an autocracy. The Tsar was not subject to the parliament. Liberals wanted to end this state of affairs. They worked towards demanding a constitution during the Revolution of 1905.
Bloody Sunday : Prices of essential goods rose so quickly by 1904 that the real wages declined by 20%. During this time, four members of the Putilov Iron Works were dismissed. Action was called for. Over 110,000 workers in St. Petersburg went on strike demanding a reduction in working hours and increase in wages. The procession was led by Father Gapon.This procession was attacked by the police and Cossacks. Over 100 workers were killed. Strikes took place as a reaction. People demanded a constituent assembly.
The Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma. The Tsar dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and announced the election of a second Duma.
The First World War and the Russian Empire: In Russia, the war was initially very popular but later the support grew thin. Anti-German sentiments ran high. Russian armies lost badly in Germany and Austria. There were 7 million casualties and 3 million refugees in Russia.
The war also affected the industry. There was labour shortage, railway lines were shut down and small workshops were closed down. There was shortage of grain and hence of bread.
THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION IN PETROGRAD
Events
- In the winter of 1917, Petrograd was grim. There was food shortage in the workers’ quarters.
- 22 February : a lockout took place at a factory. Workers of 50 other factories joined in sympathy. Women also led and participated in the strikes. This came to be called the International Women’s Day.
- The government imposed a curfew as the quarters of the fashionable area and official buildings were surrounded by workers.
- On the 24th and 25th, the government called out the cavalry and police to keep an eye on them.
- On 25th February, the government suspended the Duma and politicians spoke against this measure. The people were out with force once again.
- On 27th, the police headquarters were ransacked.
- Cavalry was called out again however it refused to fire on demonstrators.
- An officer was shot at the barracks of a regiment and other regiments mutinied, voting to join the striking workers gathered to form a soviet or council. This was the Petrograd Soviet.
- A delegation went to meet the Tsar, military commanders advised him to abdicate.
- The Tsar abdicated on 2nd March.
- A Provincial Government was formed by the Soviet and Duma leaders to run the country.
The people involved were the parliamentarians, workers, women workers, soldiers and military commanders.
Effects
- Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed.
- Soviets were set up everywhere.
- In individual areas factory committees were formed which began questioning the way industrialists ran their factories.
- Soldiers’ committees were formed in the army.
- The provisional government saw its power declining and Bolshevik influence grow. It decided to take stern measures against the spreading discontent.
- It resisted attempts by workers to run factories and arrested leaders.
- Peasants and the socialist revolutionary leaders pressed for a redistribution of land. Land committees were formed and peasants seized land between July and September 1917.
OCTOBER REVOLUTION
- 16th October 1917 — Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet to organise seizure.
- Uprising began on 24th October. Prime Minister Kerenskii left the city to summon troops.
- Military men loyal to the government seized the buildings of two Bolshevik newspapers. Pro-government troops were sent to take over telephone and telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace.
- In response Military Revolutionary Committee ordered to seize government offices and arrest the ministers.
- The ‘Aurora’ ship shelled the Winter Palace. Other ships took over strategic points.
- By night the city had been taken over and ministers had surrendered.
- All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd approved the Bolshevik action.
- Heavy fighting in Moscow — by December, the Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow - Petrograd area.
The people involved were Lenin, the Bolsheviks, troops (pro-government).
Effects
- Most industry and banks were nationalised in November 1917.
- Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
- Use of old aristocratic titles was banned.
- New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.
- Russia became a one party state.
- Trade unions were kept under party control.
- A process of centralised planning was introduced. This led to economic growth.
- Industrial production increased.
- An extended schooling system developed.
- Collectivisation of farms started.
The Civil War — When the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution, the Russian army began to break up. Non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals and supporters of autocracy condemned the Bolshevik uprising. They formed their troops and were called 'Greens' which would fight against Bolshevik 'Red'. The pro Tsar 'Whites" controlled most of the Russian empire. They were supported by French, American, British and Japanese troops. All these fought a war with the Bolsheviks.
The Bolsheviks were against the private property. Government took over banks and industries. Land was declared a social property. Bolsheviks imposed the partition of large houses in cities depending on the requirements of family. New uniform of the Russian soldiers was designed in 1918 and the Soviet hat was chosen then. The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party. A civil war erupted between the Bolsheviks and the Non-Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks finally controlled the Russian Empire.
Making a Socialist Society — The Bolsheviks kept industries and banks nationalised during the civil war. A process of centralised planning was introduced. Rapid construction and industrialisation started. An extended schooling system developed.
Stalin and Collective Farming — Stalin believed that rich peasants and traders stocked supplies to create shortage of grains. Hence, collectivisation was the need of the hour. This system would also help to modernize farms. Those farmers who resisted collectivisation were punished, deported or exiled.
GLOBAL INFLUENCE
By the 1950s, it was recognised in the country and outside that everything was not in keeping with the ideals of the Russian revolution. Though its industries and agriculture had developed and the poor were being fed, the essential freedom to its citizens was being denied. However, it was recognised that social ideals still enjoyed respect among the Russians. But in each country the ideas of socialism were rethought in a variety of different ways.
--------------X-----------------
Map work
1. On the given outline map of Europe, locate the following:-
A. Mark those countries on an outline map of Europe which fought against Russia in the 1st worlf war.
B. Mark the neutral states on the given map
=========================================================================
Unit 3 :- Nazism and the Rise of Hitler
BIRTH OF THE WEIMER REPUBLIC
Germany fought the First World War (1914–1918) along with the Austrian empire and against the Allies (England, France and Russia).
Germany initially made gains by occupying France and Belgium. However, the Allies won defeating Germany and the Central Powers in 1918.
The defeat of the Imperial Germany and the abdication of the emperor gave an opportunity to parliamentary parties to recast German polity.A National Assembly met at Weimer and established a democratic constitution with a federal structure. The republic, however, was not received well by its own people largely because of the terms it was forced to accept after Germany’s defeat at the end of the First World War. Many Germans held the new Weimer Republic responsible for not only the defeat in the war but the disgrace at Versailles.
The Weimar Republic, officially named the German Reich, was the government of Germany from 1918 to 1933, during which it was a constitutional federal republic for the first time in history; hence it is also referred to, and unofficially proclaimed itself, as the German Republic.
The Effects of the War— The war had a devastating impact on the entire continent both psychologically and financially. From being a creditor, Europe became a debtor. The supporters of the Weimer Republic were criticized and became easy targets of attack in the conservative nationalist circles. Soldiers came to be placed above civilians. Aggressive war propaganda and national honour became important. The fragile democracy could not survive and led to instability in Europe.
Political Radicalism and Economic Crisis : The birth of the Weimer Republic coincided with the uprising of the Spartacist League on the pattern of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. The Spartacists founded the Communist Party of Germany. The political instability in Germany paved the way for Hitler.
Political radicalization was heightened by the economic crisis of 1923. As Germany refused to pay the war reparations, France occupied its leading industrial area, Ruhr. Germany retaliated with printing paper currency recklessly. The value of the mark collapsed. Prices of goods soared.There was hyperinflation.
The Years of Depression
1924–1928 saw some stability, yet it was built on sand. Germany was totally dependent on short-term loans, largely from the USA. This support was withdrawn with the crash in 1929 of the Wall Street Exchange. German economy was hit badly. It led to social unrest. The middle class and working population was filled with the fear of proletarianisation.
The Weimer Republic had some inherent defects :
1. Proportional Representation
2. Article 48 — which gave the President the powers to impose emergency, suspend civil rights and rule by decree.
HITLER’S RISE TO POWER
Hitler was born in Austria in 1889. He earned many medals for bravery in the First World War.The German defeat horrified him. The Treaty of Versailles made him furious. He joined the German Workers Party and renamed it National Socialist German Workers’ Party. This later came to be known as the Nazi Party.
Nazism became a mass movement only during the Great Depression. The Nazi propaganda stirred hopes of a better future. Hitler was a powerful and effective speaker. He promised the people a strong nation where all would get employment.
His politics included the significant rituals and spectacle in mass mobilization. Nazi propaganda skillfully projected Hitler as a messiah, a saviour.
The Destruction of Democracy— Hitler achieved the highest position in the cabinet of ministries on 30 January 1933. Hitler now set out to dismantle the structures of democratic rule.The Fire Decree of 28 February 1933 suspended civic rights like freedom of speech, press and assembly. Communists were hurriedly packed off to new established concentration camps. All political parties were banned. Special surveillance and security forces were created to control the people and rule with impunity.
Reconstruction : Economist Hjalmar Schacht was given the responsibility of economic recovery. He aimed at full production and full employment through a state funded work creation programme.
Hitler pulled out of the League of Nations in 1933, reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936 and integrated Austria and Germany in 1938 under the slogan : One people, One empire, One leader. Hitler ignored the Schacht's advice of not to invest hugely in rearmament. He then took Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. Hitler had the unspoken support of England.Hitler did not stop here. He chose war as a way out of the Economic Crisis.
Resources were to be accumulated through expansion of territory. In September 1940 Germany invaded Poland. This started a war with France and England. USA resisted involvement in the war. But when Japan extended its support to Hitler and bombarded Pearl Harbour, the USA entered the war. The war ended in 1945 with Hitler’s defeat and the US bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.
In short In 1933, Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany. He withdrew from the League of Nations and resumed the remilitarised in 1936 and combined Austria and Germany in 1938. Germany invaded Poland in 1939. Hitler had reached the pinnacle of his power by the end of 1940. He attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941. Nazi expansion was at its height in 1942. The Soviet Army defeated Germany in Stalingrad in 1943. The Battle of Stalingrad sounded the death knell for Hitler.
THE NAZI WORLD VIEW
According to Nazi ideology there was no equality between people, but only racial hierarchy. The Nazis quickly began to implement their dream of creating an exclusive racial community of pure Germans by physically eliminating all those who were considered undesirable. They wanted a society of pure and healthy Nordic Aryans. Jews, Gypsies, blacks, Russian, Poles, even certain Germans and abnormal were considered undesirable.
The other aspect of Hitler’s ideology related to the geopolitical concept of Lebensraum, or living space.
Jews were the worst sufferers in Nazi Germany. Hitler believed in pseudo scientific theories of race which said that conversion was no solution to the Jewish problem. It had to be solved through their total elimination.
From 1933–1938 — the Nazis terrorized, pauperised and segregated the Jews, compelling them to leave the country.
The next phase, 1939–1945, aimed at concentrating them in certain areas and then killing the min gas chambers in Poland.
The Racial Utopia
Genocide and war became two sides of the same coin. Occupied Poland was divided. Poles were forced to leave their homes and properties behind to be occupied by ethnic Germans brought in from occupied Europe.
Communist, Non communist, USSR, and Neutral countries of Europe
YOUTH IN NAZI GERMANY
Hitler felt that a strong Nazi society could be established by teaching Nazi ideology to children.All schools were given German teachers. Children were divided into two groups — desirable and undesirable. Textbooks were rewritten, functions of sports in schools was to nurture the spirit of violence and aggression. Ten-year-olds had to enter Jungvolk. At 14, all boys joined ‘Hitler Youth’, they joined the Labour Service at 18.
The Nazi Cult of Motherhood — Women were told to be good mothers and rear pure blooded Aryan children. They were encouraged to produce many children. They had to be the bearers of the Aryan culture and race.
The Art of Propaganda — The Nazi regime used language and media with care and often to great effect. They used films, pictures, radio, posters, etc. to spread hatred for Jews. Nazism worked on the minds of the people, tapped their emotions, and turned their hatred and anger at those marked as 'undesirable'.
Crimes against Humanity — People saw the world through Nazi eyes and spoke the Nazi language. At times even the Jews began to believe in the Nazi stereotypes about them.
Knowledge about the Holocaust —It was only after the war ended that people came to know about what had happened. The Jews wanted the world to know about the atrocities and sufferings they had endured during the Nazi killing operations. They just wanted to live, even if it was for a few hours, to tell the world about the Holocaust.
Important Date :-
1914-1918 - First World War
1917 - Allies strengthened by the US entry in the first world war.
1919 Treaty of Versailles
1920 - Rich Reinland of Germany was taken over by the Allied armies
1921 - The Youth League of the Nazis was founded.
1923 - Economic crisis of Germany
1923 - Germany refused to pay the compensation and the French occupied
its leading industrial area, Ruhr to claim their coal.
1923 - Hitler planned to seize control of Bavaria, marched to Berlin.
1929- USA, Wall Street Exchange crashed.
1929 The Great Economic Depression
1933- President Hindenburg offered the Chancellorship, the highest position in the cabinet of ministers to Hitler.
1933- The Fire Decree indefinitely suspended civic rights like freedom of speech, press and assembly that had been guaranteed by the Weimar constitution.
1933- The famous Enabling Act was passed. This act established the dictatorship in Germany.
1933-38 - Nazi territorised and segregated the Jews.
1933 - Hitler pulled out of the League of Nations.
1939-45 - Jews were killed in concentration camps and in gas chambers in Poland.
1939 - Germany invades Poland: Beginning of the Second World War.
1941 - Hitler attacked the Soviet Union.
1945 - Germany surrendered to the Allies.
1945 - Adolf Hitler, his propaganda minister Goebbels and his entire family committed suicide collectively in his Berlin Bunker.
Section 2: Livelihoods, Economies and Societies:
CHAPTER – 4 FOREST SOCIETY & COLONIALISM
DEFORESTATION
Disappearece of the forests i referred to as deforestation.. Under the colonial rule it became very systematic and extensive.
Reasons for deforestation:
Land to be improved-
- As population increased over the centuries and the demand for food went up, peasants extended the boundaries of cultivation by clearing forests.
- The British encouraged the production of commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat and cotton for their industries as raw material.
- The British thought that forests were unproductive land as they yielded no revenue nor agricultural produce. Cultivation was viewed as a sign of progress.
- Oak forests in England were disappearing. There was no timber supply for the ship building industry. Forest resources of India were used to make ships for the Royal Navy.
Leepers on the track
- Spread of railways required two things :
- land to be cleared to lay railway tracks
- wood as fuel for locomotives and for railway line sleepers.
Plantations
- Large areas of natural forests were cleared for tea, coffee and rubber plantations. Thus land was given to planters at cheap rates.
COMMERCIAL FORESTRY
The British were worried that the use of forests by local people and the reckless felling of trees by traders would destroy forests and hence invited German expert Dietrich Brandis as first Inspector General of Forests in India.
Brandis set up the Indian Forest Service in 1864 and helped formulate the Indian Forest Act of 1865. The Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up in Dehradun in 1906.
Scientific forestry was taught there. In the scientific forestry system, forests with different kinds of trees were replaced by plantations. Forest management plans were made by forest officials.They planned how much of the forest had to be cut and how much had to be replanted.
The Forest Acts divided forests into
Reserved forests : | These were the best forests villagers could not enter these forests. |
Protected forests, Village forests | Villagers could take wood for fuel and house building from here. |
Forest Rules and Cultivation
Shifting cultivation or swidden agriculture was the agricultural practice in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America. The colonial foresters did not favour this system as it made it difficult for the government to calculate taxes. In addition, the forest officials saw in it the danger of fire and also that no trees could grow on this kind of land.
Lives of the forest people and nearby villagers depended upon the forests. Their various needs of fuel, fodder and even food were dependent on forests. As these people were not allowed to use forest, theie life became difficult.
Hunting and Forest Laws : The forest laws stopped the villagers from hunting in the forests but encouraged hunting as a big sport. They felt that the wild animals were savage, wild and primitive, just like the Indian society and that it was their duty to civilise them.
New Trade and New Employment : New opportunities opened in trade as the forest department took control of the forests, e.g., the Mundurucu peoples of the Brazilian Amazon.
With the colonial influence trade was completely regulated by the government. Many large European trading firms were given the sole right to trade in forest products of a particulate area.
Many pastoral communities lost their means of livelihood.
New opportunities of work did not always mean improved well-being for the people.
FOREST REBELLIONS
Forest communities rebelled against the changes imposed upon them. The people of Bastar were one such group. The people here believed that the land was given to them by the earth and in return they look after the earth. Their cultural and social life was connected to the forest.The initiative was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest where reservation first took place. The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion. It took them three months to regain control. A victory for the people of Bastar was that the work on reservation was suspended and the area was reduced to half.
CHANGES IN JAVA
Java is now famous as a rice producing island of Indonesia. But once upon a time it was covered with forsts. Dutch were the colonisers in Java.
The Kalangs: Kalangs were skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators. They rose in rebellion against the Dutch in 1770 but their uprising was suppressed.
Scientific Forestry in Java: Forest laws were enacted in Java. The villagers resisted these laws.Forest timber was used for ships and railway sleepers.
The Dutch government used the ‘balandongdiensten’ system for extracting free labour from the villagers.
Samin’s Movement: Samin of Randublatung village (a teak forest village) questioned the state ownership of forests. A widespread movement spread. They protested by lying on the ground when the Dutch came to survey it and refusing to pay taxes and perform labour.
World Wars and Deforestation: The world wars had a major impact on forests. The forest department cut freely to meet the British demands. The Dutch followed the scorched earth policy of destroying saw mills, burning logs of teak so that the Japanese could not benefit from it. The Japanese forced the villagers to cut down forests, when they occupied the area.
New Developments: Conservation and preservation of forests has now become the focus rather than timber. It has also been realised that if forests are to survive, the local community needs to be involved. There are many such examples in India where communities are conserving forests in sacred groves. This looking after is done by each member of the village and everyone is involved.
Unit 5:- Pastoralists in the Modern World:
NOMADISM AS A WAY OF LIFE
The Mountain Nomads
- The Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir — They are pastoral nomads who move in groups called ‘Kafila’. Their movements are governed by the cold and snow. In winters when the high mountains are covered with snow these Gujjars move down to the low hills of the Shiwaliks range. On the onset of summer, when the snow melts and the mountains become lush and green, these pastoralists move back to the mountains.
- The Gaddi Shepherds of Himachal Pradesh have a similar cycle of movement. They also spend the winter on the low Shiwaliks hills and the summers in Lahul and Spiti.
- The Gujjar cattle herders of Kumaon and Garhwal spend their summers in the ‘bugyals’ and their winters in the ‘bhabar’.
- The Bhotias, Sherpas and Kinnauri follow the cyclic movement which helps them to adjust to seasonal changes and make best use of pastures.
On the plateaus, plains and deserts —
- The Dhangars of Maharashtra : The Dhangars stay in the central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon. This is a semi-arid region. By October they begin their movement towards Konkan. Here their cattle help to manure the fields and hence they are welcomed by the Konkani peasant. As soon as the monsoon sets in, they retreat back to the semi-arid land of Maharashtra.
- The Gollas who herd cattle and the Kurumas and Kurubas who reared sheep and goat are from Karnataka and Andhra. They live near the woods and in the dry periods they move to the coastal tracts.
- The Banjaras of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra move to different places in search of good pastures.
- The Raikas of Rajasthan combine cultivation with pastoralism. When their grazing grounds become dry they move to new and greener pastures.
- Pastoral life was sustained by
- their sense of judgement to know how long one must stay in an area
- to know where they could find food and water
- to assess and calculate the timings of their movement
- their ability to set up a relationship with the farmers so that the herds could graze on the harvested fields.
CHANGES IN PASTORAL LIFE DUE TO COLONIAL RULE
• Under colonial rule the life of the pastoralists changed completely. Their grazing grounds became less, their movements were regulated, the revenues they had to pay increased, their trade and crafts and agricultural produce declined.
Colonial administration saw the pastoral land as a waste land that needed to be cultivated.In most areas the grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists was taken for cultivation.
The forests which were demarked as 'Protected' and 'Reserved' completely restricted the movements of pastoralists.
It completely disturbed the life of the pastoralists.
British distrusted mobile craftsman and traders.They preferred settled population for proper control.
the 1871 Criminal Tribes Act classified many communities of craftsman,traders and pastoralists as criminal tribes.
More amount of taxes were imposed to increase revenue income. Pastoralists suffered heavily from that.
Coping with changes —
- Some reduced the number of cattle in their herds.
- Some discovered new pastures.
- Some bought land and began to lead a settled life.
- Some poor peasants borrowed money to survive, in due course of time they lost their cattle and sheep and became labourers.
PASTORALISM IN AFRICA
Africa was a major pastoralists community in the world. Even today 22 million Africans depend on some form of pastoral activity for their livelihood. They include communities like Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran and Turkana.
The Maasai — Changes in their way of life
The Maasai cattle herders live primarily in East Africa. Rules, laws and regulations have changed their way of life. There are many problems which they have faced, the most prominent being continuous loss of their grazing grounds. This has many reasons :
- scramble for territorial possessions in Africa.
- dividing the region into different colonies.
- best grazing grounds being taken over by the white settlements.
- grazing grounds being converted to cultivated land and national parks and game reserves.
The Kaokoland herders have faced a similar fate.
Confined to special reserves — Traditionally, pastoralists moved to different pastures but with the restrictions imposed on them these pastoralists were confined to special reserves. They could not move without special permits. They were not allowed to enter the markets in white areas.Some tribes were affected by the Criminal Tribes Act. Even their trade activities were adversely affected.
Why nomadism — Pastoralists are nomadic — this allows them to survive bad times and avoid crises, such as drought. But later they could not shift to greener pastures and their cattle died of starvation.
The Maasai society consisted of
Elders: ruling group decided the affairs of the community and settled disputes
Warriors: young men who carried out cattle raids and defended the community
The British appointed chiefs to administer the affairs of the tribe. These chiefs were wealthy and lived a settled life as they had both pastoral and non-pastoral income. The poor pastoralists passed through bad times and worked as labourers. There were two important changes :
- The traditional difference between the elders and warriors was disturbed.
- There came to be a marked difference between the rich and poor.
Developments within Pastoral Societies
With increasing restrictions on their mobility , pastoralists find it difficult to move in search of pastures. It strains the existing pastures by overgrazing. The pastures deteriorate. The condition like drought worsens the situation.
Pastoralists adapt to new times. They find new pastures, change their routes for their annual movement, reduce their cattle numbers, press for their rights, etc. It is being advocated today that pastoral nomadism is the best form of life suited to the dry, semi-arid and mountainous regions of the world
Comments
Post a Comment